Important Dietitian, Nutrition, Health, and Medical Terms Defined

2005 US Dietary Guidelines key message- 1) Adequate nutrients within calorie needs, weight management, physical activity, and relieve eating fruits and vegetables. 2) Fats- consume less than 10% of calories from saturated fat and less than 300 mg/day of cholesterol, and keep trans fat consumption as low as possible. 3) Carbohydrates- determine fiber-rich fruits, vegetables, and whole grains. 4) Sodium and potassium- consume less than 2, 300 mg of sodium per day. 5) Alcohol- one drink per day for women and two drinks per day for men is grand moderation. 6) Food safety- clean hands, food contact surfaces, and fruits and vegetables. Do not rinse or wash meat and poultry.

Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution Ranges (AMDR) – a range of intakes for a particular energy source that is associated with reduced risk of chronic disease while providing adequate intakes of essential nutrients.

Active immunity- if you had mumps as a kid, you will not accept it again because memory cells against mumps are continuously circulating throughout your body. Vaccinations allow you to develop active immunity artificially.

Adequate Intake (AI) - a recommended average daily nutrient intake level based on observed or experimentally positive estimates of nutrient intake by a group of healthy people.

Alcohol- Bad effects- Alcohol exerts a toxin that effects enterocytes (intestinal cells) and hepatocytes (liver cells). Increased risk of breast cancer among women. Hypertension and high blood pressure can be increased with drinking. Higher rate of hemorrhagic strokes due to cranial bleeding. Increases the risk of obesity. Can affect us hard when taking over the counter drugs. Drinking may inhibit intellect, impair memory, and increase the risk of alcohol addiction. Drinking can lead to complications such as coma, fatal and nonfatal motor vehicle accidents, sexual assaults, and arrests for disorderly conduct. Damages the liver through hepatitis and cirrhosis, leads to malnutrition, and causes Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS). Good effects- Moderate alcohol consumption reduces stress, tension, anxiety, and self-consciousness while enhancing sociability and self-confidence. Has been linked to a reduced risk of cardiovascular disease for several decades. Alcohol increases serum levels of protective high-density lipoproteins (HDLs), decreases low-density lipoprotein (LDL) oxidation, and may blunt the proliferation of arterial smooth muscle cells. Also blunts platelet aggregation, reducing the risk of abnormal thrombosis or clot formation. Red wines promote having an enhanced cardio protective finish. This could be because of the flavonoids found in wines including resveratrol. Resveratrol is a potent phenolic antioxidant found in red wines as well as grapes and nuts.

Alcohol that equals one drink- One drink= 1.5 oz. distilled spirits, 4-5 oz. wine, 10 oz. wine cooler, or 12 oz. beer.

Anabolism- the process of making new molecules from smaller ones and requires energy.

Antioxidants- compounds that protect cells from the damage caused by oxidation (free radicals). Mechanism of specific antioxidants:Vitamin E- protects lipids from free-radical damage. Vitamin C- scavenges free radicals; regenerates vitamin E after it has been oxidized. Beta-carotene- scavenges free radicals, protects our LDLs from oxidation. Vitamin A- under investigation as an antioxidant. Selenium- part of the glutathione peroxidase antioxidant enzyme system.

Appetite- a psychological desire to consume specific foods.

Beta-oxidation- aerobic breakdown of fatty acids leading to end products of water, carbon dioxide, and ATP.

Biotin- organ meats, egg yolks, soybeans, fish, and whole grains.

Biotin deficiency- hair thinning, loss of hair color, red rash on face.

Blood components- Erythrocytes- red blood cells for transporting oxygen through the body. Leukocytes- white blood cells of the immune system. Platelets- cell fragments that assist in blood clotting. Plasma- the fluid section of the blood.

Blood volume regulation- fluid accounts for blood volume. Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) stimulates the kidneys to reabsorb water, reducing urine. Renin responds to decreased blood pressure, angiotensin II raise blood pressure, aldosterone signals the kidneys to retain sodium and chloride, thereby retaining water.

Body’s composition- Body composition for a 130 pound female- 58% water, 23% fat, 14% protein, and 5% minerals. Body composition for a 160 pound male- 62% water, 15% fat, 17% protein, and 6% minerals.

Bolus- the mass of food that has been chewed and moistened in the mouth.

B6 deficiency- anemia, angry irritated patched on the skin, depression, confusion, abnormal brain wave pattern, convulsions, all involve either skin, blood, or nerve tissues.

B6 Toxicity- with supplements of B6. Supplements have been used to treat PMS and carpal tunnel syndrome. Nerve damage causing numbness and muscle weakness leading to an inability to walk and convulsions, skin lesions.

Calorie- a unit of measurement equal to one kilocalorie; sometimes used in food labels and elsewhere with a lowercase “C” to represent the unit of kilocalorie.

Cancer- a group of diseases characterized by cells that reproduce spontaneously and independently and may invade other tissues and organs. Risk factors include tobacco use, sun exposure, nutrition, environmental and occupational exposures, and your level of physical activity. Be proactive against cancer by getting antioxidants (including vitamins E, C, A, beta-carotene, and other carotenoids and minerals such as selenium), dietary fiber, phytochemicals, phytoestrogens, and omega-3 fatty acids.

Carbohydrates- energy. Initiate digestion in the mouth and demolish from pancreatic amylase in the petite intestine. The site of absorption for all macronutrients is in the small intestine.

Cardiovascular disease- smoking, hypertension, high blood level of obscene density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, obesity, sedentary lifestyle, low blood levels of high density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol, impaired glucose tolerance or diabetes, family history of CVD (males before age 55, females before age 65), and being postmenopausal in women. Certain antioxidants specifically vitamin E and lycopene work in a variety of ways that reduce damage to vessels, which reduces the risk for a heart attack or stroke. The nutrients decrease risk by scavenging free radicals, reducing low-grade inflammation, and reducing blood coagulation and the formation of clots. Other compounds found in fruits, vegetables, and whole grains can reduce our risk of CVD. Examples include soluble fiber, dietary fiber, and folate.

Catabolism- the breakdown or degradation of larger molecules to smaller molecules and it releases energy.

Cholesterol- animal products.

Choline- milk, liver, eggs, and peanuts.

Choline deficiency- can lead to fat accumulation in the liver.

Choline toxicity- can result from supplements and results in a fishy body odor.

Chromium- mushrooms, prunes, dark chocolate, nuts, whole grains, and asparagus.

Chromium deficiency- inhibits glucose absorption by body cells, and interferes with insulin synthesis.

Chyme- semi fluid mass consisting of partially digested food, water, and gastric juices.

Complete proteins- come from an animal.

Complex carbohydrates- flour, starch, whole grains.

Condensation- an anabolic process by which smaller, chemically simple compounds are joined with the removal of water.

Cori cycle- conversion of glucose to lactate to glucose.

Dehydration- depletion of body fluid that results when fluid excretion exceeds fluid intake. Commonly results from heavy exercise or exposure to high environmental temperatures, when the body loses a lot of water through increased sweating and breathing. Elderly are at higher risk because they have a lower total amount of body water, and their thirst mechanism is less effective. Infants are at a higher risk as well because they excrete urine more often, cannot content us when they are thirsty, and have a greater ratio of body surface area to body core.

Dietary Reference Intakes (DRI’s) – a residence of nutritional reference values for the United States and Canada that apply to healthy people. The DRIs for most nutrients consist of four values: Estimated Average Requirement (EAR), Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA), Adequate Intake (AI), Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL).

Electrolytes- electrolytes 1) help regulate fluid balance, 2) help nerves retort to stimuli, and 3) signal our muscles to contract. 1) Electrolytes help regulate fluid balance- water follows movement of electrolytes, bewitching by osmosis where concentration of electrolytes is high and this allows for the movement of fluids in and out of cells. 2) Help nerves respond to stimuli- movements of Na+ and K+ across the membranes of nerves cells changes electrical charge, and this change carries nerve impulses along the nerve cell. 3) Signal our muscle to contract- movement of calcium (Ca++) into a muscle stimulates it to contract. Muscles relax after electrical signal is complete and calcium is pumped out of the muscle.

Electrolytes’ functions- mineral salts include sodium, potassium, chloride, and phosphorous. When these salts dissolve in water the two component minerals separate and form electrically charged particles called ions, which carry an electrical current. This spark stimulates nerves and causes muscles to contract, therefore electrolytes are essential to body function. Positive charge: Sodium (Na+) and potassium (K+). Negative charge: Chloride (Cl-) and phosphorus (HPO4^-2).

Electron transport chain- the third and final stage of glucose oxidation. A series of metabolic reactions that transport electrons from NAHD or FADH2 through a series of carriers resulting in ATP production.

Energy- ability to do work.

Enrichment Act- many nutrients are lost through the milling process of grains. Grain/cereal products are enriched with thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, folate, and iron. Enriched grains are still deficient in B-6, magnesium, and zinc.

Esophagus- tube absorbing from the mouth to the stomach. Gastro esophageal sphincter is the circular muscle allowing area to open and close. Also called the cardiac sphincter; prevents the reflux of food.

Essential nutrients- nutrients for which specific biological functions have been identified and which the body cannot synthesize in sufficient quantities to meet our biological needs. Principal nutrients must be provided through the diet.

Estimated Average Requirement (EAR) – the average daily nutrient intake level estimated to meet the requirement of half of the healthy individuals in a particular life stage or gender group.

Estrogen- protects women from heart disease.

Fat- energy, structure for cell membranes and hormones. Emulsified in the duodenum, lipase breaks down the rest in the small intestine. The site of absorption for all macronutrients is in the small intestine.

Fat soluble vitamins are absorbed into the lymph and then the blood, requires a protein or lipid carrier for transport, can accumulate in liver or adipose tissue, and is needed in periodic doses (weeks or months). A, D, E, and K.

Fed state- generally an anabolic state, the end products of digestion and absorption are converted into larger, and more chemically complex compounds.

Fiber benefits- Moderates nutrient absorption, reduces the absorption of cholesterol and other sterols, and stimulates the growth of a healthy bacterial population in the colon, and increases softness and volume of stools. May reduce the risk of colon cancer, helps prevent hemorrhoids, constipation, and other intestinal problems, may reduce the risk of diverticulosis, may reduce the risk of heart disease, may enhance weight loss, and may lower the risk of type 2 diabetes.

Food- plants and animals we consume.

Food label components- 1) Manufacturer’s name and address, 2) A statement of identity (product approved name), 3) Net contents on the package; Net wt: 14.5 oz. (411 g), 4) Ingredients list- listed in descending order by weight, 5) Nutrition information (Nutrition Facts Panel).

Food Label Requirements-1) Serving size and servings per container- describes the serving size in a celebrated household measure (cup), metric measure (grams), and how many servings are in the package. 2) Calories and calories from fat per serving. 3) List of nutrients- describes various nutrients that are found in this food. Nutrients at the top including total fat, saturated fat, Trans tubby, cholesterol, and sodium are nutrients we need to limit. 4) Percent daily values (%DVs) – tells you how remarkable a serving of food contributes to your overall intake of nutrients listed on the label. 5) Footnote- tells you that the %DVs is based on a 2, 000 calorie diet. Also includes a table.

Free radical- a highly unstable atom with an unpaired electron in its outermost shell. Diseases linked with free radicals include various cancers, heart disease, diabetes, arthritis, cataracts, kidney disease, Alzheimer disease, and Parkinson disease.

Gastric reflux- a backflow of the contents of the stomach into the esophagus, caused by relaxation of the lower esophageal sphincter.

Glucagon- produced when not enough glucose is in the blood.Gets glucose out of cells and into the blood from the liver. Emitted by pancreas.

Gluconeogenesis- anabolic process which produces glucose from non-carbohydrate source.

Glycolysis- catabolism of glucose. Glucose is converted to pyruvate.

Health Claims- Guidelines for making a health claim: Must meet FDA approved definitions. No health claim is allowed if the food contains more than 20% of the DV for total fat, saturated fat, cholesterol, or sodium. Health claims allowed: Osteoporosis- Good: calcium; Cancer- Bad: fat. Good: fiber, fruits, and vegetables; Cardiovascular disease- Bad: fat, saturated fat. Good: fiber; -Hypertension- Bad: sodium, potassium; -Neural tube defects- Good: folate; Tooth decay- Bad: sugar.

Healthy diet components- Characteristics of a healthy diet: A healthy diet is 1) adequate, 2) moderate, 3) balanced, and 4) varied. An 1) adequate diet provides enough energy, nutrients, fiber, and vitamins to support a person’s health. 2) Moderation refers to eating the right amounts of foods to maintain a healthful weight and optimize the body’s metabolic processes. 3) A balanced diet contains the combination of foods to provide the salubrious balance of nutrients. 4) Variety refers to eating different foods from the different food groups on a regular basis.

Heat Stroke- characterized by failure of the body’s heat-regulating mechanisms. Occurs in hot and humid environments and has been fatal for athletes exercising in intense heat. Cessation exercising when feeling dizzy, light-headed, disoriented, or nauseated, and drink sports drinks with water and electrolytes.

Hunger- a physiologic sensation that prompts us to eat.

Hydrolysis- a catabolic process by which large, chemically complex compounds are broken apart with the addition of water.

Hypertension- a chronic condition characterized by above average blood pressure readings. Defined as a systolic blood pressure over 140 mmHg or diastolic blood pressure over 90 mmHg. You can reduce hypertension by losing weight, increasing physical activity, reducing alcohol intake, reducing sodium intake for salt sensitive individuals, and eating more whole grains, fruits, vegetables, and low-fat protein sources.

Immune system barriers- skin, mucus, membranes, eyes, nose, inside of lungs.

Immune system (nutrients that are helpful) - 1) Vitamin A protects the barrier function of the mucosa. 2) Vitamin C and vitamin E protect phagocytes from reactive oxygen species. 3) Zinc assists immune cell gene expression and protein synthesis. 4) Omega 6 fatty acids produce inflammatory mediators. 5) Omega 3 fatty acids befriend relieves inflammation.

Incomplete proteins- approach from plants. Beans, rice, soy, potatoes.

Inorganic nutrients- a substance or nutrient that does not contain carbon.

Insulin- gets glucose out of the blood and into cells. Emitted by pancreas.

Iodine- iodized salt, seafood, bread, and dairy products.

Iodine deficiency- Hypothyroidism- low thyroid hormone results in low body temperature, cool intolerance, weight loss, fatigue, goiter. Cretinism- mental retardation from iodine deficiency during embryonic development. These infants also experience stunted growth, deafness, and muteness.

Ketones- form when glucose is low and are formed from fat.

Ketone synthesis- production is significantly increased in response to three metabolic situations. 1) High levels of acetyle CoA due to increased fat mobilization, 2) crude carbohydrate availability, 3) lack of TCA cycle intermediates, especially oxaloacetate. Ketone bodies are released from the liver into the bloodstream where they can be taken up by the cells and old as an alternative fuel by the brain, kidney cells, and other body cells. Acetyl CoA builds up leading to the synthesis of ketone bodies. Ketone bodies can then be dilapidated as alternative fuels.

Kwashiorkor- form of protein – energy malnutrition that is typically seen in developing countries in infants and toddlers (1 to 3 years old) who are weaned early because of the birth of a subsequent child. Denied breast milk, they are fed a cereal diet that provides adequate energy but inadequate protein. All protein is insufficient and is more serious than marasmus.

Large Intestine- Also called the colon. Portion of the intestine that completes the digestion and absorption process.

Lipogensis- synthesis of fatty acids from non-fat sources such as carbohydrates, ketogenic amino acids, and alcohol.

Lipolysis- breakdown of triglycerides to free fatty acids and glycerol.

Macronutrients (carbohydrates, protein, and fat) AMDR Recommendations- Carbohydrates: 45-65%; Fat: 20-35%; Protein: 10-35%.

Macronutrients’ calories- Carbohydrates and protein have 4 calories per gram, alcohol has 7 calories per gram, and paunchy has 9 calories per gram. To find the percent of calories multiply the macronutrient times the moral number of calories per gram, then divide by the total number of calories.

Macular degeneration- a medical condition predominantly found in elderly adults in which the center of the inner lining of the eye, known as the macula area of the retina, suffers thinning, atrophy, and in some cases, bleeding. This can result in loss of central vision, which entails inability to see gorgeous details, to read, or to recognize faces. According to the American Academy of Ophthalmology, it is the leading cause of central vision loss (blindness) in the United States today for those over the age of fifty years. Risk factors include aging, family history, macular degeneration gene, hypertension, cardiovascular status, high fat intake, oxidative stress, fibulin-5 mutation, rush (more popular among whites than blacks), and exposure to sunlight. There are no known cures for macular degeneration.

Manganese- whole-grain foods, brown rice, pineapple, pine nuts, okra, and spinach.

Manganese toxicity- impairs the nervous system causing spasms and tremors mimicking Parkinson’s disease.

Marasmus- a form of protein- energy malnutrition that results from grossly inadequate intakes of protein, energy, and other nutrients. Most common in young children (6 months to 18 months) living in impoverished conditions. Wastes away skeletal muscles, still live for awhile however.

Metabolism- sum of all chemical and physical processes by which the body breaks down and builds up molecules.

Moderate alcohol intake- no more than one drink a day for women, and two drinks a day for men. Why do men and women have different moderate alcohol intakes? The action of gastric ADH will reduce, as opposed to simply delay, the absorption of alcohol into the bloodstream. Gastric ADH oxidizes a small percentage of alcohol in the stomach, lowering the amount of alcohol absorbed into the bloodstream by as worthy as 20%. This enzyme is less active in women so that leaves more alcohol to be absorbed in the bloodstream.

Monounsaturated fat- Good: increases HDL and lowers LDL, good for the heart.

Mouth- digestion begins in the mouth, chewing is mechanical digestion. Salivary amylase is an enzyme that begins the chemical digestion of starch. Mucus moistens food, and the mass of food chewed is called the bolus.

Mucus- the slimy protective secretion of the mucous membranes.

Niacin- meat, fish, and enriched bread products.

Niacin deficiency- diarrhea, dermatitis, abdominal pain, vomiting, inflamed swollen smooth bright red tongue, depression, apathy, fatigue, loss of memory, headache, bilateral symmetrical rash on areas exposed to sunlight, and can lead to death.

Niacin toxicity- typically from supplements, used to treat high cholesterol because it lowers cholesterol. Painful flush, hives, rash, excessive sweating, blurred vision, liver damage, and impaired glucose tolerance.

Nutrients- chemicals found in foods that is famous to human growth and function.

Nutrients that yield energy- Carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins are the only nutrients in foods that provide energy.

Nutrient dense foods- Foods that are “nutrient dense” supply a significant amount of these nutrients for their calories. Examples include whole-grain breads and cereals, rice, beans, pasta, vegetables, and fruits.

Nutrition facts on food labels- The percent daily values are based on a 2, 000 calorie diet, and the footnote at the bottom of the nutrition facts panel illustrates the differences in recommendations between a 2, 000 and 2, 500 calorie diet.

Nutrition information sources- Look for credentials such as RD (registered dietitian) or MD, and affiliations with nationally known health organizations like the American Dietetic Association (ADA), the American Medical Association (AMA), or the American Heart Association (AHA).

Omega 3- non-essential, protects the brain and heart. Ex: fish.

Omega 6- linoleic and linolenic are essential hormones. Ex: canola oils.

Organic nutrients- a substance or nutrient that contains carbon. Organic nutrients include carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and vitamins.

Osteoporosis- a disease characterized by low bone mass and deterioration of bone tissue, leading to enhanced bone fragility and increase in fracture risk. Modifiable risk factors include smoking, low body weight, uncouth calcium intake, low sun exposure, alcohol abuse, history of amenorrhea in women with inadequate nutrition, estrogen deficiency (females), testosterone deficiency (males), repeated falls, and a sedentary lifestyle. Non-modifiable risk factors include older age (elderly), Caucasian or Asian race, history of fractures as an adult, family history, female, and history of amenorrhea in women with no recognizable cause. Although there is no cure for osteoporosis, individuals are encouraged to consume plenty of calcium and vitamin D and to exhaust regularly.

Oxaloacetate- three reasons it is low include 1) a low carbohydrate diet, 2) starvation, and 3) diabetes.

Oxidation- molecule giving up an electron is “oxidized.”

Pantothenic acid- whole grains, beef liver, chili con carne, mushrooms, duck, sunflower seeds, yogurt, potatoes, green peas, and turkey.

Passive immunity- provides temporary protection against a disease via antibodies from another human or animal. Breast milk contains antibodies to protect the infant.

Percent Daily Value- information on a nutrition facts panel that identifies how noteworthy a serving of food contributes to your overall intake of nutrients listed on the label; based on an energy intake of 2, 000 calories per day.

Peristalsis- wave of squeezing and pushing contractions that move food, chyme, and feces in one direction through the length of the GI tract.

Phytochemicals- chemicals found in plants such as pigments and other substances that may reduce our risk for diseases such as cancer and heart disease. Phytochemicals are found in whole grains, fruits, vegetables, legumes, nuts, garlic, and soy products.

Polyunsaturated fat- Bad: increases inflammation and cancer. Neutral- no effect on cholesterol.

Prebiotics- fibers that are preferentially fermented by the beneficial lactobacilli and bifidobacteria in gut flora and thus encourage their growth. What probiotics eat.

Probiotics- live beneficial strains of gut bacteria in food or supplements that help maintain a proactive balance in the gut flora. Dependable organism. Benefit (under these conditions): 1) Diarrhea in children caused by a rotavirus. 2) Diarrhea associated with use of antibiotic medications in children and adults.3) Traveler’s diarrhea. 4) Inflammatory bowel disease. 5) Infection from Helicobacter pylori, which is the bacteria associated with conditions such as peptic ulcers, gastritis, and gastric cancer. 6) Food allergies. 7) Urinary and genital tract infections in women. Back with intestinal problems.

Protein- building. Digestion begins and ends in the small intestine. The site of absorption for all macronutrients is in the slight intestine.

Protein deamination- proteolysis begins by deamination of the amino acids, which removes their amine (NH2) or nitrogen group and leaves a carbon skeleton. The end products of deamination are ammonia (NH3), derived from the amine group and the remaining carbon skeleton, often classified as a keto acid.

Pyridoxine (B6) – tuna, fortified cereals, meat, fish, poultry, starchy vegetables, bananas, and legumes.

Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) – the average daily nutrient intake level that meets the nutrient requirements of 97% to 98% of healthy individuals in a particular life stage and gender group.

Rectum or Anus- waste exits.

Reduction- molecule receiving an electron is “reduced.”
Registered Dietitian Requirements-1) Bachelor’s degree in nutrition, 2)Completion of supervised clinical experience, and 3) Passing a national registration examination. Roles of a RD include being a health care provider, researcher, counselor, and teacher.

Relationship between nutrition and diseases- Good nutrition can reduce the risk of diseases associated with deficiencies of vitamins and minerals. Many diseases are directly related to bad nutrition such as hypertension, cancer, cardiovascular disease, osteoporosis, marasmus, and kwashiorkor.

Riboflavin (B2) – milk products, yogurts, cheese, eggs, and whole grains.

Riboflavin deficiency- sore throat, swollen mucous membranes, furious eyelids and sensitivity to light, reddening of cornea, cracks and redness at corners of mouth, painful tranquil purplish red tongue, inflammation characterized by skin lesions covered with greasy scales.

Satiety- the condition of being full or gratified.

Saturated fat- Good: decreases cancer. Bad: increases LDL. Ex: whole cheese, whole milk, whole yogurt, coconut, steaks with fat.

Science of nutrition- scientific study of food and how food nourishes our bodies and influences our health.

Segmentation- rhythmic contractions of the circular muscles of the intestines that squeeze chyme, mix it, and enhance digestion and absorption of nutrients from the chyme.

Simple carbohydrates- sugars, fructose, sucrose, maltose, fruits, soda, candy, cookies.

Small Intestine- most of the digestion and absorption takes place in the small intestine. Sodium bicarbonate raises pH to 7 or more, and acid chyme is neutralized to basic pH. Bile is needed to bring fat into suspension in water. Bile from the gall bladder. Secretions of pancreas- lipase breaks down lipids and sodium bicarbonate neutralizes the pH. Ileocecal valve connects small intestine to large intestine. Duodenum, jejunum, and ileum.

Starvation- during starvation the energy needs of the body tumble a lot. Most cells increase the utilize of fatty acids for fuel, and conserve the supply of glucose. The brain shifts away from glucose and uses ketone bodies for fuel.

Stomach- strongest muscles and thickest walls of the GI tract organs. Adds juices to the bolus and grinds into semi-solid liquid called chyme. Hydrochloric acids and gastric juices break up protein. Pyloric sphincter connects stomach to small intestine.

Sulfur- synthesized from the protein in our diets.

TCA cycle- eight reactions starting with acetyl Co A and ending with oxaloacetate.

Thiamin- enriched breads and grains, pork, soy milk, acorn, squash, pinto beans, and watermelon.

Thiamin deficiency- beriberi results in muscle wasting and nerve afflict.

Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL) – the highest average daily nutrient intake level likely to pose no risk of adverse health effects to almost all individuals in a particular life stage and gender group.

Vitamins and Minerals- vitamins and minerals are required for sterling metabolism, do not directly provide energy, can be destroyed by conditions including light and heat exposure, are necessary for obtaining energy from the macronutrients, and often function as coenzymes.

Vitamins and minerals interactions: 1) Calcium supplements interfere with absorption of zinc. 2) High levels of phosphate in the U.S. diet interfere with calcium metabolism and contribute to osteoporosis. 3) Vitamins C and E act synergistically with other antioxidants like selenium, beta- carotene, zinc, and copper. It is likely that taking high dosages of these two antioxidants will spare the need for any intake above the Daily Values which should be obtained from a healthy diet. 4) High doses of zinc (on the order of 50 mg/day) can interfere with the absorption of a variety of other important minerals. 5) Other interactions are possible when nutrients are taken in concentrated supplement dosages, which is why it is desirable to obtain the Daily Values for nutrients through a well- balanced diet. 6) The form of a micronutrient usually does not have a significant effect on absorption. 7) Medications can affect your requirement for vitamins and minerals.

Vitamin toxicity causes - toxicity from vitamins is normally caused from taking too much through supplements.

Water balance regulation- refers to the balance between the amount of water consumed and the amount of water excreted. Most people should drink 8 glasses each day; however you should consider your unique conditions to decide how considerable water to drink each day.

Water, fluid functions: Fluids 1) dissolve and transports substances, 2) fluids account for blood volume, 3) fluids help maintain body temperature, and 4) they protect and lubricate body tissues. 1) Fluids dissolve and transport substances- water is a great solvent because it can dissolve in many different substances including ions, blood, sugars, amino acids, vitamins, and minerals. 2) Fluids account for blood volume- ant diuretic hormone (ADH) stimulates the kidneys to reabsorb water, reducing urine. 3) Fluids help maintain body temperature- high heat capacity of water allows temperature of body fluids to remain stable. Sweating releases heat as it evaporates and cools the skin and blood. 4) Fluids protect and lubricate body tissues- cerebrospinal fluid protects the brain and spinal column, amniotic fluid protects the fetus, synovial fluid is a lubricant around joints, digestive secretions allow for easy passage of material.

Water loss- most water is lost through urine. Insensible water loss is through evaporation from the skin (sweating) and exhalation from the lungs during breathing. Notable losses of water include exercise, illnesses, injury, surgery, high altitude, and diuretics.

Water requirements- The need for water varies with age, body size, health status, physical activity level, and exposure to environmental conditions. A highly active male athlete training in hot environments will need 10 L of fluid per day, while an inactive small woman living in a mild climate working in a temperature-controlled office may only need 3 L of water per day. The DRI is 2.7 liters for the adult female, and 3.7 liters for the adult male. Factors that increase water needs include age (young or old), diseases that disturb water balance (poorly controlled diabetes), diarrhea and vomiting, hot weather or dry climate, exercise, pregnancy and lactation.

Water soluble vitamins are absorbed directly in the blood, travel freely; excess is excreted in the urine, and is needed in frequent doses (1-3 days). B-complex and Vitamin C.

Water sources- carbonated water that contains carbon dioxide. Mineral waters contain 250-500 parts per million (ppm) of minerals. Distilled water is process so all dissolved minerals are removed. Purified water has been treated so all dissolved minerals and contaminants are removed. Tap water from our homes. Surface water is any water that travels or is stored on top of the ground. This would be the water that is in rivers, lakes, streams, reservoirs, even the oceans–even though we can’t drink salt water. Ground water is any water that is underground is groundwater. Half of the people in the United States use ground water for drinking water.